DevelopmentWA is the State Government’s central land and development agency - planning and delivering projects from conception to completion. Our role is to transform underused government land into vibrant, well-designed places for the community – Shaping our State’s future.

DevelopmentWA is leading the redevelopment of the ECU Mount Lawley campus site.

We have a proven track record in delivering complex urban renewal projects at Subi East and  Montario Quarter.

To stay informed about this project, please register via the 'stay informed' button at the top right-hand section of this page, to receive Project update emails on the current stage of the development and other relevant information to the re-development of the ECU Mount Lawley site.

Edith Cowan University (ECU), including WAAPA, is relocating from its Mount Lawley campus in early 2026 to the Perth CBD next to Yagan Square, as part of the Perth City Deal. For information about ECU’s new city campus, visit ECU | Our campuses : About ECU

Teaching begins at the new ECU City campus in Semester 1 2026, and ECU will continue to finalise the closure of the Mount Lawley facilities over the course of 2026.

The relocation opens up a rare opportunity to transform the Mount Lawley site into a vibrant new precinct that will include housing, education, public spaces, and community facilities. The redevelopment will honour the site’s cultural and educational legacy while reflecting the unique character of the surrounding neighbourhood.

ECU will continue managing the Mount Lawley site as they progressively vacate the campus buildings throughout 2026. During this transition, there will likely be access restrictions to parts of the campus. 

At the same time, DevelopmentWA will continue to advance planning for the site and undertaking on-site investigations.

As ECU vacates the campus, onsite services will gradually cease operation. All cafes, vending machines and other services are now closed.

 For more details on ECU vacating the site, visit this webpage.

ECU and its services will leave the campus during 2026, with the site planned to return to the State for redevelopment in December 2026. 

The Mount Lawley Child Care Centre will continue operating on-site until its lease ends in December 2026.

ECU and DevelopmentWA have kept the Centre closely informed throughout project planning and the transition process.

Early planning confirmed the Centre cannot remain in its current location due to site constraints and the scale of redevelopment works, and it is therefore not shown on the future plans for the site.

Looking ahead, we anticipate that childcare will remain a permissible land use and could be included as part of the new development in later stages of the project.

This will depend on whether buyers of the commercial spaces have the appetite to develop a childcare centre and if there’s enough community need at the time.

Before any changes can start on the ECU Mount Lawley site, several planning and approval steps need to be completed.

The Master Plan has been released and sets the overall vision for the site. DevelopmentWA is now progressing the statutory planning, including amendments to the Metropolitan Region Scheme and Local Planning Scheme, as well as preparation of a Precinct Structure Plan.

Separate approvals will also be required for any on-site works, such as demolition and site preparation, from the relevant Government agencies. On-site works cannot begin until ECU fully vacates the campus and the site is formally handed back to the State, which is planned for late 2026.

Once the statutory planning framework is in place, the necessary works approvals are secured and the site has been handed back, redevelopment can then begin.

The ECU Mount Lawley site will be redeveloped through a sequence of planning stages:

1. Metropolitan Region Scheme Amendment: The Western Australian Planning Commission updates the broad zoning of the site to reflect the transition from its historic tertiary education use.
   
   
2. Local Planning Scheme Amendment: The City of Stirling updates its Local Planning Scheme so it aligns with the revised regional planning framework.
   
   
3. Precinct Structure Plan: A detailed planning document that sets the framework for how the site will be developed. It outlines the preferred street network, public spaces, community facilities, schools, infrastructure and built form to guide future development decisions.
   
   
4. Subdivision: Applications are lodged to create development lots, parks and public spaces, and to confirm how the site will be serviced.

5. Development Applications:  Proposals for new development are assessed against the approved planning framework before any construction can begin.

Following completion of works, all public open spaces including parks, landscaped areas, and street trees, will be handed over the City of Stirling for ongoing maintenance and management of vegetation.  Similar to any other public park, the City of Stirling will take ownership of the areas to ensure these areas remain safe, attractive, and accessible for the community.

In February 2026, the government announced funding for a business case to develop a Creative Industries Hub at the upgraded WAAPA, Library, and Administration buildings.

The proposed Creative Industries Hub will offer potential performance, rehearsal, production and office spaces for not-for-profit organisations, commercial creative businesses, and emerging artists, fostering collaboration, innovation, and new career pathways.

The Department of Creative Industries, Tourism and Sport is now developing a business case to explore operational models, staging and funding options.

To register for project updates or if you would like more information, please visit www.cits.wa.gov.au/creative-industries-hub.

If you have any questions for the Creative Industries Hub project team, you may email This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it. 

The site is currently zoned for tertiary education. With ECU relocating to its new City Campus in 2026, the existing university zoning needs to change so the land can be redeveloped. This amendment enables new homes, parks, community spaces and a primary school, with some areas retained for public purposes.

The Metropolitan Region Scheme amendment is the first step in the statutory planning process. It formally changes the zoning on the Metropolitan Region Scheme map, as required under the Planning and Development Act 2005 and includes public consultation and assessment by the WA Planning Commission (WAPC). It sets the broad zoning needed to support future development and lays the groundwork for more detailed planning to follow.

For more information on Region Schemes visit the Department of Planning, Lands and Heritage website.

The amendment for this project was open for public feedback 1 September and 13 October 2025, via the Department of Planning, Lands and Heritage website, and is expected to finalised by mid-2026.

The ECU Mount Lawley Master Plan is a strategic document that sets the overall vision for how the site can be renewed once ECU vacates. It provides a high-level framework for the future layout of the neighbourhood, including streets, parks and public spaces, community facilities, infrastructure and the general scale and form of new residential and commercial development.

Although the Master Plan is not a statutory planning document, it plays an important role. It sets the direction for the next stage of planning and will guide the preparation of the Precinct Structure Plan and future detailed design.

The Master Plan has been developed through a combination of technical studies, planning analysis, community and stakeholder engagement and broader State Government priorities.

The Master Plan outlines a long-term vision to transform the ECU Mount Lawley campus into a connected, inclusive and sustainable neighbourhood. It takes a considered approach to housing, open space, transport, and community infrastructure, guided by six strategies shaped by community input, with a strong focus on local identity, green space, and people-first design. The six strategies are:

• Honouring our legacy
• Shaping a connected community
• Prioritising safe movement
• Creating inviting green spaces
• Spaces for living, learning and gathering
• Building for the future

To find out more on the six strategies of the Master Plan, visit the 'Information and Resources' page for videos and factsheets that explain the content of the Plan.

Community involvement has been central to the project. Across 2024 and 2025, DevelopmentWA engaged with local residents, businesses and community organisations through a range of activities to understand local values, aspirations and ideas for the site.

Engagement included:

• A Community Reference Group that met across three workshops between November 2024 and June 2025 to help shape the vision, design principles and early ideas.
• A community values survey in April–May 2024, with over 300 responses from households and businesses within 1.5 km of the campus.
• Four community drop-in sessions: two in December 2024 to test early design principles, and two during the Draft Master Plan consultation in mid-2025.
• Youth engagement with Mount Lawley Senior High School students.
• Focus groups with ECU staff and alumni, WAAPA, local community groups, Noongar Elders and others from January 2024 to March 2025.
• A Draft Master Plan survey and open email channel for written feedback.

All feedback helped shape the current planning for the site including the Master Plan.

A summary of the activity and feedback received is available on the Yoursay page.

Community feedback was carefully reviewed and helped refine and strengthen the final Master Plan. While the overall vision and layout remain the same, the final version includes clearer information and improved detail in several areas, such as movement and access, design and built form (buildings), the role of key community facilities and how the project will be delivered over time.

These have been summarised in an updated ‘Vision and Master Plan’ factsheet and a quick video explaining how the Master Plan has evolved. These can be viewed on the 'Information and Resources' page

You can view the Master Plan on the Yoursay page.

The ECU Mount Lawley site has a long and meaningful history, from its Noongar heritage to its role in education, creativity and the arts. The Master Plan recognises this and aims to carry the site’s identity forward as the area evolves.

This sense of history will continue to be reflected in later stages of planning through opportunities such as building reuse, public art and place naming.

More details can be found in the Honouring our legacy factsheet and video

The Master Plan proposes retaining four key buildings: WAAPA, the Library, the Administration Building and part of the student village. These buildings were chosen for their character, connection to the site’s history and potential for future adaptive re-use.

The Master Plan proposes retaining the WAAPA, Library and Administration buildings because they contribute strongly to the site’s character and have potential for adaptive re-use. 

In February 2026, the State Government announced funding for a business case to explore the potential development of a Creative Industries Hub within the retained WAAPA, Library and Administration buildings.

The business case is being led by the Department of Creative Industries, Tourism and Sport, and is exploring possible uses, operational models, staging and funding options. Any future outcomes will be subject to the findings of this work and further government decisions.

For more information about the proposed Creative Industries Hub, including how to register for updates, visit www.cits.wa.gov.au/creative-industries-hub.

The newer portion of the Student Housing Village is also proposed to be retained. Its future use will be subject to further detailed investigation and may provide opportunities for a range of future housing options as planning progresses.

While the site is not part of a Heritage Protection Area, as part of planning for the redevelopment DevelopmentWA has considered the character of nearby suburbs like Mount Lawley, Menora, Coolbinia, and Inglewood - and aims to reflect this through high-quality building design that respects the area's identity and the campus’s unique modernist architecture.

Any changes or additions to public transport are the responsibility of the Public Transport Authority and the Department of Transport and Major Infrastructure. While DevelopmentWA does not control public transport services, we work closely with these agencies, so they are aware of the redevelopment and the future needs of the community. Public transport considerations will form part of their ongoing planning.

The Master Plan outlines the potential for a mix of buildings and outdoor spaces for living, learning, creativity and community life. It sets an aspirational vision that includes a new public primary school, opportunities for small local businesses and potential community facilities to support arts and cultural activities. Within the Master Plan small-scale retail such as cafés, local shops and everyday services are shown in locations that encourage social connection and complement nearby homes and green spaces.

A range of green spaces is also proposed, including a central plaza for community events, a cultural garden and a nature-based park with water features.

Informed by the aspirations of the Master Plan, the Precinct Structure Plan will outline the statutory planning controls for the site, including what land uses are permissible and where they can be located.

The Master Plan includes a site for the new Mount Lawley West Primary School. In 2025, the Cook Labor Government announced funding to begin planning for the school.

Planning and design will be led by the Department of Education to support future growth and reflect the needs of the local community. Details such as the school’s design, timing, student numbers and catchment will be determined through their planning process.

A Precinct Structure Plan (PSP) is a planning document that sets out a clear plan for how a large area will be developed over time. It is prepared and approved under a local planning scheme and provides guidance before any detailed development happens. A PSP comprises of a series of maps showing zoning and land use, along with a supporting report that explains the planning approach, design intent and technical matters.

A PSP shows things like:

• what different areas of land will be used for (for example housing, community facilities or education)
• how dense development can be and the general size and form of buildings
• where streets, paths and access points will be located
• where parks and open space will be located
• what infrastructure and community facilities will be needed

It does not approve specific buildings or development. After a PSP is approved, separate and more detailed planning applications are required. These future applications must align with the PSP and any other relevant policies and documents prepared by the Western Australian Planning Commission (WAPC) and City of Stirling.

For the ECU Mount Lawley Redevelopment site, the PSP explains where future housing, community facilities and education uses may be located. It also sets out the network of streets and public open spaces, and includes development provisions to guide building height, density and infrastructure as the site is developed over time.

Edith Cowan University (ECU) is moving to its new Perth City campus. As a result, the 18.6 hectare Mount Lawley site will change from a university campus to a new mixed‑use urban precinct. A PSP is needed to make sure this change happens in a well‑planned and coordinated way. The PSP looks at the site as a whole and sets clear directions before any subdivision or development begins.

The PSP is informed by a range of technical studies, including transport, environmental, servicing and infrastructure, landscaping, drainage, economics and acoustic. Together, these studies help ensure the future development works well for the site, surrounding neighbourhoods and the wider community.

In short, the PSP provides the overall framework needed to guide future development of the site in an orderly and considered way.

The PSP provides the overall plan to guide how the site will be developed in the future. It sets clear directions for key elements of the precinct, including:

• where different zones will be located, such as residential and mixed‑use areas, as well as land for education and special uses.
• the preferred types of land uses across the site.
• the layout of transport infrastructure, including a new internal street and movement network.
• where public open spaces will be located and what size they will be.
• three different character areas, which help guide the look and feel of future development.
• planning controls that manage building scale and density, landscaping, parking, amenity and overall design.

Together, these elements ensure future development happens in a coordinated and well‑considered way.

The Master Plan sets out the long‑term vision for the site. It is not a statutory planning document, but it was developed by DevelopmentWA with input from the community and key stakeholders to guide what the site could become over time.

The PSP builds on this vision and turns it into a formal planning document. The PSP takes the ideas in the Master Plan and sets clear planning rules and directions for how the site can be subdivided and developed.

Once approved, the PSP becomes part of the planning framework. This means future subdivision and development applications will be assessed against the PSP to make sure they align with the agreed vision for the site.

The site is planned to include a mix of uses. This includes new homes, mixed‑use development, a new public primary school and retained and adapted buildings for creative industries and education purposes. Streets, walking and cycling connections, transport infrastructure and public open spaces will be integrated throughout the site.

A range of housing types are expected, such as townhouses, terrace homes, grouped dwellings and apartments. The exact housing types, layouts and designs will be decided through future subdivision and development applications.

Providing a mix of housing will help support a diverse community, including families, singles, downsizers and students, and allows the site to meet different housing needs over time.

A separate development application for forward works has been lodged to seek approval for early works needed to prepare the site for future redevelopment. This application is separate from the PSP and is assessed on its own.

The PSP sets the long‑term plan for the site, including land uses, streets, public open space and development rules. In contrast, the forward works development application only covers early site preparation works. These include things like selective demolition, cleaning up any contamination, removing old services, early earthworks and other necessary enabling works. Forward works applications are commonly used on large sites to make sure the land is safe and ready before future development begins. This application is being progressed at the same time as the PSP so the site can be made ready once ECU vacates.

The forward works development application does not approve buildings, subdivision, or the final mix of land uses. Those decisions are made through the PSP and later planning applications.

The application will be determined by the WAPC. The City of Stirling will provide a recommendation, and the WAPC will make the final decision.

Development of the site is expected to occur in stages over the longer term. Based on other developments of a similar size led by DevelopmentWA, this process could take up to 20 years and is guided by demand.

The PSP does not lock in a fixed number of homes. Instead, it sets broad guidance on housing density to allow flexibility as the site develops over time. The final number of dwellings will depend on future planning approvals, detailed designs and market conditions.

The PSP outlines several possible growth scenarios. It sets a minimum yield of about 700 homes across the site. A higher growth scenario of around 1,100 homes has also been identified. This is not a commitment to deliver that number of homes. It is a technical estimate based on the maximum limits allowed under the PSP, such as building scale and parking requirements. This higher scenario was used to test transport and infrastructure needs, to make sure roads and services can support future growth if it occurs.

Higher density development is planned along Alexander Drive, within the central mixed‑use area, and near key movement routes. Lower density housing is generally located in the northern and eastern parts of the site to provide a clear and respectful transition to surrounding residential neighbourhoods.

The PSP mainly controls density using plot ratio rather than fixed building height limits. Plot ratio sets how much building floor space can be developed compared to the size of the land. In simple terms, it limits how big a building can be overall, rather than setting a strict number of storeys.

Using plot ratio provides flexibility in building design over time, while still ensuring development does not exceed appropriate limits for the site.

Building height, form and scale will also be managed through other planning controls. These include building setbacks that increase at higher levels, specific rules for different character areas, requirements to limit overshadowing, privacy controls, and provisions to protect the amenity of nearby homes.

The PSP supports a mix of housing types to help create a diverse and inclusive community. This includes the potential for social and affordable housing that can meet the needs of people at different life stages, such as families, seniors, students, downsizers and essential workers.

The exact amount and location of any social or affordable housing have not yet been decided. These details will be worked through in partnership with the Department of Housing and Works and, potentially, community housing providers. The PSP does not set specific targets or locations but allows flexibility for these decisions to be made in the future.

Any social or affordable housing delivered on the site will be tenure blind and fully integrated into the neighbourhood. This means all homes, whether market, affordable or social housing, will be designed to the same high architectural standards so they fit seamlessly within the precinct.

Transport planning has played an important role in shaping both the Master Plan and the PSP. The aim is to create a safe, well‑connected and low‑stress environment for people moving around the site and the surrounding area.

A detailed Transport Impact Assessment has been prepared as part of the PSP. It tests the most conservative future scenario, which assumes the higher number of homes and a fully operating primary school. This approach helps ensure roads, intersections and traffic management are planned to handle future growth.

Key outcomes of the transport planning include:

• a new internal street network designed for local access, not through‑traffic
• lower speed streets across the precinct
• a new north–south connector street
• shared street areas that prioritise pedestrians
• strong walking and cycling connections to nearby neighbourhoods, schools and public transport.

Traffic modelling shows the wider road network is expected to continue to operate at acceptable levels. Some intersections along Alexander Drive may experience increased demand as development occurs, but these impacts are expected to be localised and can be managed through ongoing monitoring and traffic signal adjustments if needed.

Overall, the precinct has been planned to encourage walking, cycling and public transport use, reduce reliance on private cars, and connect safely and efficiently with the existing transport network.

Around 2.6 hectares of public open space is proposed across the site, which is over 15 per cent of the total area. The PSP spreads these spaces throughout the site so they are easy to reach, well connected and part of everyday life for residents and visitors.

The open space network includes a range of different but connected spaces, such as:

• Linear parks that support walking and cycling
• A Cultural Garden that recognises Whadjuk Noongar heritage and the site’s creative history
• A Lake Park, centred around the existing waterbody
• A School Green, comprising a shared community space near the new primary school
• A central civic plaza for meeting, events and activity.

These spaces are designed to support many uses, including play, informal recreation, relaxation, walking and cycling, community events and cultural activities. Landscaped streets and green links extend this network across the site, creating shaded walking routes and a strong green character throughout the precinct.

The PSP focuses on delivering strong, long‑term tree canopy and environmental outcomes, while recognising that some early enabling works are required to safely prepare the site for future uses.

Parts of the site contain historic landfill material and are currently classified as Remediated for Restricted Use. Before homes, amenities and public open space can be delivered, further investigation and clean‑up work is required under the Contaminated Sites Act 2003.

A separate forward works development application has been submitted and is assessed independently of the PSP. This application covers early site preparation works such as demolition, remediation and removal of old infrastructure. Some trees will need to be removed where this work requires access to contaminated soil or buried services. The approach taken is conservative, meaning it assumes the maximum‑case scenario so impacts are fully assessed. In areas where contamination sits beneath existing trees, those trees cannot be retained.

Looking beyond these early works, the PSP sets out clear long‑term outcomes, including:

• keeping mature trees where they are not affected by contamination
• enabling substantial new tree planting over time to rebuild and expand canopy
• locating streets and public open spaces to support tree retention and healthy growth
• providing enough soil space to support long‑lived, healthy trees.

Together, these measures mean that while some short‑term tree loss is unavoidable, the long‑term outcome will be a greener and more landscaped precinct.

The PSP has been lodged with the City of Stirling for assessment. As part of this process, the City of Stirling is responsible for publicly advertising the PSP and inviting submissions from the community. All community submissions will be reviewed and considered before the City of Stirling makes a recommendation.

The Western Australian Planning Commission (WAPC) is the final decision‑maker. If the WAPC approves the PSP, it will become part of the planning framework and will guide future subdivision and development on the site.

The City of Stirling publicly advertised the Precinct Structure Plan and invited submissions between Friday 6 March and Friday 24 April 2026 via their website. Submissions are now closed. 

The Forward Works Development Application was publicly advertised from 5 March to 19 March 2026 and is now with the Department of Planning, Lands and Heritage for assessment.

This development application seeks approval from the Western Australian Planning Commission for initial works to prepare the site for redevelopment.

This includes selective demolition of buildings not identified for retention in the Master Plan, demolition of pavement, remediation of site contamination, selective tree and vegetation removal (because of demolition and remediation works), removal of redundant services and preliminary earthworks.

Buildings retained under the Master Plan include the Western Australian Academy of Performing Arts, the Library, the Administration building and parts of the Student Housing Village.

ECU has relocated to its new Perth City campus and is progressively vacating the Mount Lawley site during 2026. As the site transitions away from university use, important groundwork is required to safely prepare the land for any future use.

These initial works are needed to address existing site constraints, including historic landfill material and associated soil contamination, redundant buildings and ageing infrastructure. While the site has previously supported university use, moving to urban uses such as housing means the land must be further investigated and remediated to ensure it is safe for future residents and the wider community.

Undertaking these early works will help manage risks associated with a large vacant site and ensure the land can be responsibly prepared to deliver much‑needed housing and high‑quality spaces for the community as part of future redevelopment.

The site was used as a sanitary landfill prior to development of the university campus, resulting in areas of soil contamination.

Under the Contaminated Sites Act 2003, the site is currently classified as Remediated for Restricted Use, with the approved use being a university campus.

As the university use is ending, the current restricted use classification no longer aligns with proposed future residential and community uses. Further investigation, remediation and validation are therefore required under the Contaminated Sites Act 2003 before the site can lawfully transition to those uses.

The works will occur across parts of the former campus where buildings, pavement, and infrastructure are no longer required.

The buildings identified for retention under the Master Plan are not included in the demolition works, this being the Western Australian Academy of Performing Arts facilities, the Library, the Administration building and parts of the Student Housing Village.  

We understand trees are important to the community. Tree removal as part of this Development Application is only proposed where it is necessary to demolish redundant buildings, remove underground infrastructure or access contaminated soil associated with the site’s historic landfill use.

In some areas, landfill material sits beneath existing trees. To properly remove or contain that material and make the land suitable for future homes and public open space, the soil beneath those trees must be accessed. In those locations, tree retention is not possible.

The proposed extent of removal has been informed by detailed investigations and infrastructure mapping. However, as the university is still operating and existing buildings and services remain live, access to all areas of the site has not yet been possible. As a result, this Development Application adopts a conservative, worst‑case approach in identifying potential vegetation removal areas.

Further detailed site investigations will be undertaken prior to and during forward works to inform on‑ground requirements. As investigations progress, opportunities for tree retention will be assessed, taking into account remediation, infrastructure and safety considerations. Where feasible, existing vegetation will be retained, with the broader redevelopment also delivering new green corridors and public open spaces, supported by extensive planting of locally appropriate trees and vegetation to enhance the site’s green character.

Due to the extent of the contamination on site, several trees are required to be removed to enable the soil beneath them to be remediated. Some trees are also required to be removed to accommodate future infrastructure such as services and roads. The removal of trees has been carefully worked through with an environmental consultant to ensure the plans proposed will have no significant impact on flora and fauna habitat including Black Cockatoo.

Through the development of the Master Plan, the layout of the site was carefully considered to support the retention of key vegetation, and targeted new planting as part of the redevelopment will enhance the tree canopy and support biodiversity on site.

As contamination investigations progress, we will continue to seek opportunities to retain additional trees.

Environmental assessments have been undertaken to understand potential impacts on local wildlife, including black cockatoos. The site contains limited habitat and no suitable breeding hollows have been identified.

While some trees will be removed within defined works areas, the studies found the site does not function as an important feeding, breeding or roosting area for black cockatoos. The proposed works are not expected to result in significant impacts to these species.

Environmental management measures will be implemented during works to minimise disturbance, and future redevelopment will include new planting to support canopy and biodiversity over time.

Subject to approval of this Development Application, works are expected to commence in 2027, following ECU’s vacation at the end of 2026.  

The duration of the works will depend on site conditions, the outcomes of further investigations and the sequencing of demolition, remediation and infrastructure activities. At this stage, the detailed program is still being finalised and timeframes will be confirmed closer to commencement.

The site is preparing to transition from a former university campus to future residential and community uses.

DevelopmentWA is progressing this application now so that, once ECU vacates the site, enabling works can commence without delay.

This avoids the site remaining vacant and redundant for an extended period and ensures it can be safely prepared for future housing and public open space.

By undertaking these works early, the site can be made ready to deliver much needed new housing and community infrastructure as soon as other planning approvals are in place.

The forward works application is separate from the Precinct Structure Plan.

The Precinct Structure Plan establishes the planning framework and long-term vision for the site.

This Development Application seeks approval only for remediation, demolition and site preparation works. It does not determine future land uses, development outcomes or subdivision layout.

The application does not prejudice or pre-empt the Precinct Structure Plan process. Future development will continue to be assessed and determined through the public consultation and statutory planning framework.

Temporary impacts such as construction noise, dust and increased vehicle movements may occur during the works. These impacts will be managed through management plans by the appointed contractor prior to works commencing. These plans will address working hours, dust suppression, traffic management and site controls, and will be implemented and monitored throughout the works to minimise impacts on the surrounding area.